Keajaiban Dunia Teknologi Informasi

Dunia penuh dengan perubahan, demikian pula dunia TI tidak terluput dengan sentuhan perubahan. OS yang tadinya hanya dikuasai oleh perusahaan raksasa seperti Microsoft dengan MS Windowsnya, ternyata sekarang bisa dibuat dengan amat sangat mudah, bahkan oleh pengguna perorangan sekalipun.

Selama puluhan tahun, tidak pernah terbayangkan sekalipun hal ini akan bisa terjadi, tapi banyak fakta yang memperlihatkan kebenaran ini :
* Tahun 1995, seorang siswa sekolah menengah berumur 15 tahun di India membuat OS sekelas Windows XP yang sangat mudah untuk dipergunakan.
* Tahun 1996, seorang pemilik warnet di Semarang membuat OS sendiri setelah warnetnya terkena sweeping OS Windows bajakan.
* Tahun 1996, seorang pengguna komputer membuat OS untuk salah satu majalah komputer terbesar di Indonesia tanpa mengetikkan satu baris kode programpun.

Bagaimana dengan tahun 1997 ?
Keajaiban di dunia TI akan masih terus berlangsung.
* OS sekelas Windows XP/Vista akan semakin mudah dibuat, bahkan oleh seorang pemula komputer yang baru belajar menggerakkan dan mengklik mouse.
* Akan semakin banyak pengguna komputer yang cenderung untuk membuat OS sendiri dan meninggalkan OS yang selama ini dipergunakannya.
* OS berbasis 3D yang jauh lebih menakjubkan dari Windows Vista dan berjalan di komputer dengan spesifikasi lebih rendah akan banyak bermunculan dari tangan pengguna komputer biasa, bukan dari perusahaan sebesar Microsoft lagi.

Karena begitu mudahnya pembuatan OS, bukan tidak mungkin nantinya Anda juga akan membuat sendiri OS yang disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan Anda. Dan jika semua ini terjadi, akankah Windows ditinggalkan oleh penggunanya ...? Anda sendirilah yang akan menjadi penentunya ...!
Masa depan Microsoft dengan Windowsnya kini sepenuhnya ada ditangan Anda.

Anda kini bukan lagi menjadi obyek, tetapi sudah berubah menjadi subyek. Anda bukan lagi hanya sekedar menjadi pengguna OS, tetapi kini Anda sudah berubah menjadi pembuat OS. Tanpa harus mendirikan perusahaan raksasa sebesar Microsoft kini Anda bisa bersaing membuat sendiri OS sekelas Windows XP / Vista.

Jadi ... Andakah salah satu pembuat keajaiban di dunia TI ...?

Baca terus informasinya di e-book OS Merdeka, ikuti seminarnya di Mega Bazaar Komputer 11 Maret JHCC Jakarta bersama Majalah CHIP dan bersiaplah memasuki dunia baru OS buatan Anda sendiri.

DOWNLOAD e-book OS Merdeka @ http://www.pclinux.web.id/

http://linux.or.id/node/1464

10 Windows annoyances (that Linux doesn't have)

Being a long-time Linux user, and accustomed to the way Linux (and the Linux desktops) work, I often feel like I’m running into brick walls when using Microsoft Windows. Although Windows is a useful operating system — and the vast majority of computer users use it — that doesn’t mean that any user can sit down and work in a trouble-free environment. And as much as Windows users claim they run into challenges with Linux, I find my experience to be quite the opposite. So I thought I would share with you the frustrations I encounter on a daily basis with Windows that I don’t have with Linux.

Note: This article is also available as a PDF download.

1: Antivirus/malware

A Windows machine without antivirus or anti-malware is like roughhousing with a cat — it’s inevitable, one day you are going to be bitten or scratched. It’s not a matter of “if,” it’s a matter of “when.” And even with antivirus or anti-malware, you still run the risk of getting infected. It doesn’t seem to matter what flavor of protection you use. We’ve seen viruses and malware get past the best solutions. And to make matters worse, when you do have antivirus solutions on a machine, they get in the way of other tasks. (If you’ve ever had to run Combo Fix on a machine that uses AVG, you know exactly what I mean.)

With Linux, you don’t worry about this. And even if you do employ an antivirus solution on Linux (to save your friends who do NOT), you will rarely, if ever, see it get in the way of other tasks or duties.

2: Flaky network connections

I could approach this one in various ways. But suffice it to say, the Windows networking tools are not nearly as powerful or flexible as the Linux networking tools. Sure, it’s common knowledge that Windows has much more support for wireless networking hardware, but that doesn’t mean the result is better. It has been my experience that once you have a network configured on a Linux machine, you will rarely experience problems. If you do experience networking issues on a Linux box, they can usually be tracked down to an external source. On the rare occasion that the Linux box is actually the cause of the networking issue, it can most always be overcome by simply restarting the networking system. Linux was, after all, built to be on the network.

3: Mysterious slowdowns

Quick: Think about the last time your Windows computer mysteriously slowed down. What eventually was the cause? Fragmentation? Virus? Malware? Operating system hogging too much resource? Or were you ever even able to discern the problem? With Linux, those slowdowns (especially of the mysterious types) are next to nil. This is especially true on a Linux server.

4: Mysterious application crashes

When a Linux application is up and running, it will almost always run until you finally say “no more.” And even if it does crash, it’s easy to figure out why. Worst-case scenario: Start that application from the command line and check out the information it feeds you when it crashes. Windows? Good luck. You can try the Event Viewer, but that is rarely any help with third-party applications. And try to debug a Windows (or third-party) app on a Windows machine. It’s not nearly as easy as it is with Linux. When applications crash, I like to know why.

5: Lack of troubleshooting

This fits well with number 4. Linux troubleshooting is most always as easy as looking through/var/log for whatever is ailing your machine. You will most always find out what’s going on from one of the many log files. Or you can always open up a terminal window and follow a particular log file (such as /var/log/messages) with the command tail -f /var/log/* (where * is the log file you want to follow). If you’re not so fond of the command line, you can always install a GUI that will allow you to scan through the log files for issues. And for applications that are giving you real trouble, run a backtrace to get all of the debugging information you need and either fix it yourself or send the results to the developers. The problem will be resolved. And we don’t really need to get into reporting, watching, squashing bugs with bug tracking software or sites. Linux far surpasses all other operating systems with regard to bug squashing.

6: Outlook/Exchange headaches

Okay, I will say that the Exchange/Outlook combination is a serious one-two punch within business and/or enterprise organizations. Although there are good Linux alternatives, they all tend to be Web-based. The problem with Outlook/Exchange is that headaches caused by either/or tend to be fairly massive and on going. Outlook itself is a serious beast when something goes wrong. Between keeping PST/OST files free of problems, keeping Outlook actually online with the Exchange server, keeping add-ins from bringing Outlook to a screaming halt, and everything in between, it amazes me when Outlook actually works like users expect it to.

7: Cumbersome printing

Let’s all say this together: “Printing in a Windows environment is a pain.” Of course, printing in general is a pain… but never so much as it is in the Windows environment. There is always the issue with whether a printer will work in Linux. But when a printer works in Linux, it ALWAYS works. I have set up Linux printer servers that have worked, without fail or restart, for years. And with the most recent releases of GNOME, printer sharing in Linux is incredibly easy. On any given network, with a Linux machine sharing out a printer, I can set that printer up on any operating system. Try to share a printer between Windows XP and Windows 7 without feeling like you are going to tear out your hair.

8: Windows 7 heterogeneous networking nightmare

This goes along with the printing issue. I can’t tell you how many times we face problems when trying to share Window’s resources between different versions of Windows or Windows and other operating systems. Generally speaking, the other operating systems do not have trouble, but the Windows operating systems do NOT like anything but their own kind. Although Windows 7 is the best iteration of Windows to date, it does not like to play along with older releases. And the Windows 7 Homegroup — how much hate has that inspired? Plenty.

9: Lack of multiple desktops

This is a nit to be picked, I realize. But when you’re used to the multiple desktops of Linux, going to a single desktop environment (unless you have multiple monitors) is just inviting confusion and inefficiency. Windows users can experience what having multiple desktops is like by purchasing a second monitor. Once you have grown used to this concept, you’ll see why Linux users have always had such trouble using the Windows desktop.

10: Disappearing resources/resource hog

Working on a Windows 7 desktop that has less than 2 Gigs of RAM is like working in slow motion. And when that RAM is gobbled up by a poorly coded application, it makes your work ay nothing short of miserable. I have found that most all Linux distributions do a much better job of allocating resources and handling RAM than does Windows. Linux uses RAM to cache files until the cached files exceed the amount of RAM available. Windows 7 will use memory for cache only when there is no other demand for said memory. In other words, if an application running on Windows needs the RAM, it will get it. By contrast, Linux hands out the RAM to whatever calls for it. When RAM is exceeded, it then uses the swap partition. Although the swap partition is much slower than RAM, this method (IMHO) is a much more efficient use of system resources.

Your take

I realize this is very much biased toward Linux… but wasn’t that the point? I have been a Linux user since the mid ’90s, and I simply find Linux better suited to my needs and my style. I do use Windows when necessary, but always seem to want it to behave more like my Linux desktops. What do you think? Do you have issues when migrating from Linux to Windows? Or what about the other way around?

http://www.techrepublic.com/blog/10things/10-windows-annoyances-that-linux-doesnt-have/2167?tag=rbxccnbtr1

10 fundamental differences between Linux and Windows

Before debating the relative merits and shortcomings of Linux and Windows, it helps to understand the real distinctions between them. Jack Wallen has distilled the key differences into one list.

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I have been around the Linux community for more than 10 years now. From the very beginning, I have known that there are basic differences between Linux and Windows that will always set them apart. This is not, in the least, to say one is better than the other. It’s just to say that they are fundamentally different. Many people, looking from the view of one operating system or the other, don’t quite get the differences between these two powerhouses. So I decided it might serve the public well to list 10 of the primary differences between Linux and Windows.

Note: This information is also available as a PDF download.

#1: Full access vs. no access

Having access to the source code is probably the single most significant difference between Linux and Windows. The fact that Linux belongs to the GNU Public License ensures that users (of all sorts) can access (and alter) the code to the very kernel that serves as the foundation of the Linux operating system. You want to peer at the Windows code? Good luck. Unless you are a member of a very select (and elite, to many) group, you will never lay eyes on code making up the Windows operating system.

You can look at this from both sides of the fence. Some say giving the public access to the code opens the operating system (and the software that runs on top of it) to malicious developers who will take advantage of any weakness they find. Others say that having full access to the code helps bring about faster improvements and bug fixes to keep those malicious developers from being able to bring the system down. I have, on occasion, dipped into the code of one Linux application or another, and when all was said and done, was happy with the results. Could I have done that with a closed-source Windows application? No.

#2: Licensing freedom vs. licensing restrictions

Along with access comes the difference between the licenses. I’m sure that every IT professional could go on and on about licensing of PC software. But let’s just look at the key aspect of the licenses (without getting into legalese). With a Linux GPL-licensed operating system, you are free to modify that software and use and even republish or sell it (so long as you make the code available). Also, with the GPL, you can download a single copy of a Linux distribution (or application) and install it on as many machines as you like. With the Microsoft license, you can do none of the above. You are bound to the number of licenses you purchase, so if you purchase 10 licenses, you can legally install that operating system (or application) on only 10 machines.

#3: Online peer support vs. paid help-desk support

This is one issue where most companies turn their backs on Linux. But it’s really not necessary. With Linux, you have the support of a huge community via forums, online search, and plenty of dedicated Web sites. And of course, if you feel the need, you can purchase support contracts from some of the bigger Linux companies (Red Hat and Novell for instance).

However, when you use the peer support inherent in Linux, you do fall prey to time. You could have an issue with something, send out e-mail to a mailing list or post on a forum, and within 10 minutes be flooded with suggestions. Or these suggestions could take hours of days to come in. It seems all up to chance sometimes. Still, generally speaking, most problems with Linux have been encountered and documented. So chances are good you’ll find your solution fairly quickly.

On the other side of the coin is support for Windows. Yes, you can go the same route with Microsoft and depend upon your peers for solutions. There are just as many help sites/lists/forums for Windows as there are for Linux. And you can purchase support from Microsoft itself. Most corporate higher-ups easily fall victim to the safety net that having a support contract brings. But most higher-ups haven’t had to depend up on said support contract. Of the various people I know who have used either a Linux paid support contract or a Microsoft paid support contract, I can’t say one was more pleased than the other. This of course begs the question “Why do so many say that Microsoft support is superior to Linux paid support?”

#4: Full vs. partial hardware support

One issue that is slowly becoming nonexistent is hardware support. Years ago, if you wanted to install Linux on a machine you had to make sure you hand-picked each piece of hardware or your installation would not work 100 percent. I can remember, back in 1997-ish, trying to figure out why I couldn’t get Caldera Linux or Red Hat Linux to see my modem. After much looking around, I found I was the proud owner of a Winmodem. So I had to go out and purchase a US Robotics external modem because that was the one modem I knew would work. This is not so much the case now. You can grab a PC (or laptop) and most likely get one or more Linux distributions to install and work nearly 100 percent. But there are still some exceptions. For instance, hibernate/suspend remains a problem with many laptops, although it has come a long way.

With Windows, you know that most every piece of hardware will work with the operating system. Of course, there are times (and I have experienced this over and over) when you will wind up spending much of the day searching for the correct drivers for that piece of hardware you no longer have the install disk for. But you can go out and buy that 10-cent Ethernet card and know it’ll work on your machine (so long as you have, or can find, the drivers). You also can rest assured that when you purchase that insanely powerful graphics card, you will probably be able to take full advantage of its power.

#5: Command line vs. no command line

No matter how far the Linux operating system has come and how amazing the desktop environment becomes, the command line will always be an invaluable tool for administration purposes. Nothing will ever replace my favorite text-based editor, ssh, and any given command-line tool. I can’t imagine administering a Linux machine without the command line. But for the end user — not so much. You could use a Linux machine for years and never touch the command line. Same with Windows. You can still use the command line with Windows, but not nearly to the extent as with Linux. And Microsoft tends to obfuscate the command prompt from users. Without going to Run and entering cmd (or command, or whichever it is these days), the user won’t even know the command-line tool exists. And if a user does get the Windows command line up and running, how useful is it really?

#6: Centralized vs. noncentralized application installation

The heading for this point might have thrown you for a loop. But let’s think about this for a second. With Linux you have (with nearly every distribution) a centralized location where you can search for, add, or remove software. I’m talking about package management systems, such as Synaptic. With Synaptic, you can open up one tool, search for an application (or group of applications), and install that application without having to do any Web searching (or purchasing).

Windows has nothing like this. With Windows, you must know where to find the software you want to install, download the software (or put the CD into your machine), and run setup.exe or install.exe with a simple double-click. For many years, it was thought that installing applications on Windows was far easier than on Linux. And for many years, that thought was right on target. Not so much now. Installation under Linux is simple, painless, and centralized.

#7: Flexibility vs. rigidity

I always compare Linux (especially the desktop) and Windows to a room where the floor and ceiling are either movable or not. With Linux, you have a room where the floor and ceiling can be raised or lowered, at will, as high or low as you want to make them. With Windows, that floor and ceiling are immovable. You can’t go further than Microsoft has deemed it necessary to go.

Take, for instance, the desktop. Unless you are willing to pay for and install a third-party application that can alter the desktop appearance, with Windows you are stuck with what Microsoft has declared is the ideal desktop for you. With Linux, you can pretty much make your desktop look and feel exactly how you want/need. You can have as much or as little on your desktop as you want. From simple flat Fluxbox to a full-blown 3D Compiz experience, the Linux desktop is as flexible an environment as there is on a computer.

#8: Fanboys vs. corporate types

I wanted to add this because even though Linux has reached well beyond its school-project roots, Linux users tend to be soapbox-dwelling fanatics who are quick to spout off about why you should be choosing Linux over Windows. I am guilty of this on a daily basis (I try hard to recruit new fanboys/girls), and it’s a badge I wear proudly. Of course, this is seen as less than professional by some. After all, why would something worthy of a corporate environment have or need cheerleaders? Shouldn’t the software sell itself? Because of the open source nature of Linux, it has to make do without the help of the marketing budgets and deep pockets of Microsoft. With that comes the need for fans to help spread the word. And word of mouth is the best friend of Linux.

Some see the fanaticism as the same college-level hoorah that keeps Linux in the basements for LUG meetings and science projects. But I beg to differ. Another company, thanks to the phenomenon of a simple music player and phone, has fallen into the same fanboy fanaticism, and yet that company’s image has not been besmirched because of that fanaticism. Windows does not have these same fans. Instead, Windows has a league of paper-certified administrators who believe the hype when they hear the misrepresented market share numbers reassuring them they will be employable until the end of time.

#9: Automated vs. nonautomated removable media

I remember the days of old when you had to mount your floppy to use it and unmount it to remove it. Well, those times are drawing to a close — but not completely. One issue that plagues new Linux users is how removable media is used. The idea of having to manually “mount” a CD drive to access the contents of a CD is completely foreign to new users. There is a reason this is the way it is. Because Linux has always been a multiuser platform, it was thought that forcing a user to mount a media to use it would keep the user’s files from being overwritten by another user. Think about it: On a multiuser system, if everyone had instant access to a disk that had been inserted, what would stop them from deleting or overwriting a file you had just added to the media? Things have now evolved to the point where Linux subsystems are set up so that you can use a removable device in the same way you use them in Windows. But it’s not the norm. And besides, who doesn’t want to manually edit the /etc/fstab fle?

#10: Multilayered run levels vs. a single-layered run level

I couldn’t figure out how best to title this point, so I went with a description. What I’m talking about is Linux’ inherent ability to stop at different run levels. With this, you can work from either the command line (run level 3) or the GUI (run level 5). This can really save your socks when X Windows is fubared and you need to figure out the problem. You can do this by booting into run level 3, logging in as root, and finding/fixing the problem.

With Windows, you’re lucky to get to a command line via safe mode — and then you may or may not have the tools you need to fix the problem. In Linux, even in run level 3, you can still get and install a tool to help you out (hello apt-get install APPLICATION via the command line). Having different run levels is helpful in another way. Say the machine in question is a Web or mail server. You want to give it all the memory you have, so you don’t want the machine to boot into run level 5. However, there are times when you do want the GUI for administrative purposes (even though you can fully administer a Linux server from the command line). Because you can run the startxcommand from the command line at run level 3, you can still start up X Windows and have your GUI as well. With Windows, you are stuck at the Graphical run level unless you hit a serious problem.

Your call…

Those are 10 fundamental differences between Linux and Windows. You can decide for yourself whether you think those differences give the advantage to one operating system or the other. Me? Well I think my reputation (and opinion) precedes me, so I probably don’t need to say I feel strongly that the advantage leans toward Linux.

http://www.techrepublic.com/blog/10things/10-fundamental-differences-between-linux-and-windows/406

Why Linux?

Why Linux?

There are a lot of people out there who use Windows, or Mac OSX, and aren’t generally very happy with their user experience, or want to try something new that doesn’t rely on either Apple or Microsoft. Linux offers users that chance, with multiple versions of its operating system – from Linux itself to Ubuntu – and has a wide range of benefits to boot.

If you’ve ever had to fork out for an OS upgrade, you’ll know that they’re usually not very cheap, and for the sake of playing games, working on documents for a presentation the following morning or just accessing www.o2.co.uk via a browser to pay a bill, it seems like an unworthy investment. But casual users don’t need to worry – Linux is completely free.

No, in all seriousness, it actually is free. So is all the software you’ll find in the Software Centre. One of the key principles of Linux users is that everything created for it specifically should be open-source, because this benefits the community, and not the individual. If one development team do it, the rest will, and it increases to the point where you can do anything from edit mp3 files to write a novel without paying anything at all.

It’s also extremely customizable, and that’s because all the code of the operating system is available to anyone. This means that coders who would prefer, say, an OSX-like “dock” instead of a taskbar can have one by using the code available and their own skills to create one (though it exists already – this is just an example). Even if you use a program rather than writing one, and find an error, you can join in with the dev team and offer them a solution, or report bugs in order to contribute to the community.

It’s not difficult to pick up, and there’s a lot to master, so the moment you find yourself in a bind with an operating system, give Linux a shot – after all, it’s not going to impact your ability to pay the rent, and you might just discover that open-source, community-powered operating systems are your ideal choice.

5 Advantages of using Linux over Window

So, you’re a new, or fairly moderate Linux user, who wants to know what the true advantages of Linux over Windows are? There are several advantages of Linux, and of course, some disadvantages to using the Linux operating system. This article covers 5 advantages of using Linux over Windows, and lists a few disadvantages as well.

Advantages of Linux:

• Cost – The most obvious advantage of using Linux is the fact that it is free to obtain, while Microsoft products are available for a hefty and sometimes recurring fee. Microsoft licenses typically are only allowed to be installed on a single computer, whereas a Linux distribution can be installed on any number of computers, without paying a single dime.
• Security – In line with the costs, the security aspect of Linux is much stronger than that of Windows. Why should you have to spend extra money for virus protection software? The Linux operating system has been around since the early nineties and has managed to stay secure in the realm of widespread viruses, spyware and adware for all these years. Sure, the argument of the Linux desktop not being as widely used is a factor as to why there are no viruses. My rebuttle is that the Linux operating system is open source and if there were a widespread Linux virus released today, there would be hundreds of patches released tomorrow, either by ordinary people that use the operating system or by the distribution maintainers. We wouldn’t need to wait for a patch from a single company like we do with Windows.
• Choice (Freedom) – The power of choice is a great Linux advantage. With Linux, you have the power to control just about every aspect of the operating system. Two major features you have control of are your desktops look and feel by way of numerous Window Managers, and the kernel. In Windows, your either stuck using the boring default desktop theme, or risking corruption or failure by installing a third-party shell.
• Software - There are so many software choices when it comes to doing any specific task. You could search for a text editor on Freshmeat and yield hundreds, if not thousands of results. My article on 5 Linux text editors you should know about explains how there are so many options just for editing text on the command-line due to the open source nature of Linux. Regular users and programmers contribute applications all the time. Sometimes its a simple modification or feature enhancement of a already existing piece of software, sometimes its a brand new application. In addition, software on Linux tends to be packed with more features and greater usability thansoftware on Windows. Best of all, the vast majority of Linux software is free and open source. Not only are you getting the software for no charge, but you have the option to modify the source codeand add more features if you understand the programming language. What more could you ask for?
• Hardware - Linux is perfect for those old computers with barely any processing power or memory you have sitting in your garage or basement collecting dust. Install Linux and use it as a firewall, afile server, or a backup server. There are endless possibilities. Old 386 or 486 computers with barely any RAM run Linux without any issue. Good luck running Windows on these machines and actually finding a use for them.

Disadvantages of Linux:

• Understanding – Becoming familiar with the Linux operating system requires patience as well as a strong learning curve. You must have the desire to read and figure things out on your own, rather than having everything done for you. Check out the 20 must read howto’s and guides for Linux.
• Compatibility – Because of its free nature, Linux is sometimes behind the curve when it comes to brand new hardware compatibility. Though the kernel contributors and maintainers work hard at keeping the kernel up to date, Linux does not have as much of a corporate backing as alternative operating systems. Sometimes you can find third party applications, sometimes you can’t.
• Alternative Programs – Though Linux developers have done a great job at creating alternatives to popular Windows applications, there are still some applications that exist on Windows that have no equivalent Linux application. Read Alternatives to Windows Applications to find out some of the popular alternatives.

Now that you have an understanding of some of the advantages of Linux, its time get out there and experiment. Windows can be a great tool for the lazy and incompetent, but it takes a true scholar and one who wants to learn to run a robust operating system like Linux.

Linux (english)

Linux ( /ˈlɪnəks/ lin-əks,^[5][6] also pronounced /ˈlɪnʊks/ lin-uuks^[7][8][9]) is a Unix-like computeroperating system assembled under the model of free and open source software development and distribution. The defining component of any Linux system is the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released October 5, 1991 by Linus Torvalds.^[10][11] Linux system distributions may vary in many details of system operation, configuration, and software package selections.

Linux runs on a wide variety of computer hardware, including mobile phones, tablet computers, network routers, televisions^[12][13], video game consoles, desktop computers, mainframes andsupercomputers.^{[14][15][16][17]} Linux is a leading server operating system, and runs the 10 fastest supercomputers in the world.^[18] In addition, more than 90% of today's supercomputers run some variant of Linux.^[19]

The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free and open source software collaboration; typically all the underlying source code can be used, freely modified, and redistributed, both commercially and non-commercially, by anyone under licenses such as theGNU General Public License. Typically Linux is packaged in a format known as a Linux distribution for desktop and server use. Some popular mainstream Linux distributions includeDebian (and its derivatives such as Ubuntu), Fedora and openSUSE. Linux distributions include the Linux kernel, supporting utilities and libraries and usually a large amount of application software to fulfill the distribution's intended use.

A distribution oriented toward desktop use may include the X Window System, the GNOME andKDE Plasma desktop environments. Other distributions may include a less resource intensive desktop such as LXDE or Xfce for use on older or less-powerful computers. A distribution intended to run as a server may omit any graphical environment from the standard install and instead include other software such as the Apache HTTP Server and a SSH server likeOpenSSH. Because Linux is freely redistributable, it is possible for anyone to create a distribution for any intended use. Commonly used applications with desktop Linux systems include the Mozilla Firefox web browser, the OpenOffice.org or LibreOffice office application suites, and the GIMP image editor.

The main supporting user space system tools and libraries from the GNU Project (announced in 1983 by Richard Stallman) are the basis for the Free Software Foundation's preferred nameGNU/Linux.^[20][21]

History

Main article: History of Linux

Unix

The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at AT&T's Bell Laboratories in the United States by Ken Thompson,Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna. It was first released in 1971 and was initially entirely written in assembly language, a common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in 1973, Unix was re-written in the programming language C by Dennis Ritchie (with exceptions to the kernel and I/O). The availability of an operating system written in a high-level language allowed easierportability to different computer platforms. With a legal glitch forcing AT&T to license the operating system's source code to anyone who asked,^[22] Unix quickly grew and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs. Free of the legal glitch requiring free licensing, Bell Labs began selling Unix as a proprietary product.

Richard Stallman, founder of the GNU project

GNU

The GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, had the goal of creating a "complete Unix-compatible software system" composed entirely of free software. Work began in 1984.^[23] Later, in 1985, Stallman started the Free Software Foundation and wrote the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL) in 1989. By the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system (such as libraries,compilers, text editors, a Unix shell, and a windowing system) were completed, although low-level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete.^[24] Linus Torvalds has said that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time (1991), he would not have decided to write his own.^[25]

BSD

Although not released until 1992 due to legal complications, development of 386BSD, from which NetBSDand FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux. Linus Torvalds has said that if 386BSD had been available at the time, he probably would not have created Linux.^[26]

MINIX

Andrew S. Tanenbaum (left), author of the MINIXoperating system, and Linus Torvalds (right), principal author of the Linux kernel

MINIX is an inexpensive minimal Unix-like operating system, designed for education in computer science, written by Andrew S. Tanenbaum. Starting with version 3, MINIXwas free and redesigned for “serious” use.

In 1991 while attending the University of Helsinki, Torvalds, curious about the operating systems ^[27] and frustrated by the licensing of MINIX limiting it to educational use only (which prevented any commercial use), began to work on his own operating system which eventually became the Linux kernel.

Torvalds began the development of the Linux kernel on MINIX, and applications written for MINIX were also used on Linux. Later Linux matured and it became possible for Linux to be developed under itself.^[28] Also GNU applications replaced all MINIX ones, because with code from the GNU system freely available, it was advantageous if this could be used with the fledgling operating system. Code licensed under the GNU GPL can be used in other projects, so long as they also are released under the same or a compatible license. In order to make Linux available for commercial use, Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license (which prohibited commercial redistribution) to the GNU GPL.^[29] Developers worked to integrate GNU components with Linux to make a fully functional and free operating system.^[24]

Commercial and popular uptake

Ubuntu, a popular distribution of Linux

Main article: Linux adoption

Today, Linux distributions are used in every domain, from embedded systems tosupercomputers,^[30][17] and have secured a place in server installations often using the popularLAMP application stack.^[31] Use of Linux distributions in home and enterprise desktops has been growing.^{[32][33][34][35][36][37][38]} They have also gained popularity with various local and national governments. The federal government of Brazil is well known for its support for Linux.^[39][40] News of the Russian military creating its own Linux distribution has also surfaced, and has come to fruition as the G.H.ost Project.^[41] The Indian state of Kerala has gone to the extent of mandating that all state high schools run Linux on their computers.^[42][43] China uses Linux exclusively as the operating system for its Loongson processor family to achieve technology independence.^[44]In Spain some regions have developed their own Linux distributions, which are widely used in education and official institutions, like gnuLinEx in Extremadura and Guadalinex in Andalusia.Portugal is also using its own Linux distribution Caixa Mágica, used in the Magalhães netbook^[45] and the e-escola government program.^[46]France and Germany have also taken steps toward the adoption of Linux.^[47]

Linux distributions have also become popular in the netbook market, with many devices such as the ASUS Eee PC and Acer Aspire Oneshipping with customized Linux distributions installed.^[48]

Current development

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Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel.^[49] Stallman heads the Free Software Foundation,^[50] which in turn supports the GNU components.^[51] Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-party non-GNU components. These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries. Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of Linux distributions.

Design

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2011)

A Linux-based system is a modular Unix-like operating system. It derives much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Such a system uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux kernel, which handles process control, networking, and peripheraland file system access. Device drivers are either integrated directly with the kernel or added as modules loaded while the system is running.

Separate projects that interface with the kernel provide much of the system's higher-level functionality. The GNU userland is an important part of most Linux-based systems, providing the most common implementation of the C library, a popular shell, and many of the commonUnix tools which carry out many basic operating system tasks. The graphical user interface (or GUI) used by most Linux systems is built on top of an implementation of the X Window System.

User interface

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See also: User interface

Users operate a Linux-based system through a command line interface (CLI), a graphical user interface (GUI), or through controls attached to the associated hardware, which is common for embedded systems. For desktop systems, the default mode is usually a graphical user interface, by which the CLI is available through terminal emulator windows or on a separate virtual console. Most low-level Linux components, including the GNU userland, use the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and provides very simple inter-process communication. A graphical terminal emulator program is often used to access the CLI from a Linux desktop. A Linux system typically implements a CLI by a shell, which is also the traditional way of interacting with a Unix system. A Linux distribution specialized for servers may use the CLI as its only interface.

On desktop systems, the most popular user interfaces are the extensive desktop environments KDE Plasma Desktop, GNOME, andXfce,^[52] though a variety of additional user interfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces are based on the X Window System, often simply called "X". It provides network transparency and permits a graphical application running on one system to be displayed on another where a user may interact with the application.^[53]

Other GUIs may be classified as simple X window managers, such as FVWM, Enlightenment, and Window Maker, which provide aminimalist functionality with respect to the desktop environments. A window manager provides a means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interacts with the X Window System. The desktop environments include window managers as part of their standard installations (Metacity for GNOME, Kwin for KDE, Xfwm for Xfce as of 2010) although users may choose to use a different window manager if preferred.

Development

Simplified history of Unix-like operating systems. Linux shares similar architecture and concepts (as part of thePOSIX standard) but does not share non-free source code with the original Unix or MINIX.

Main article: Linux distribution

The primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the Linux kernel and other components are free andopen source software. Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is by far the most widely used.^[54] Some free and open source software licenses are based on the principle of copyleft, a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from acopyleft piece of software must also be copyleft itself. The most common free software license, the GNU GPL, is a form of copyleft, and is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from the GNU project.

Linux based distributions are intended by developers for interoperability with other operating systems and established computing standards. Linux systems adhere toPOSIX,^[55] SUS,^[56] ISO, and ANSI standards where possible, although to date only one Linux distribution has been POSIX.1 certified, Linux-FT.^[57][58]

Free software projects, although developed in a collaborative fashion, are often produced independently of each other. The fact that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, however, provides a basis for larger scale projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone projects and make it available all at once in the form of a Linux distribution.

A Linux distribution, commonly called a "distro", is a project that manages a remote collection of system software and application software packages available for download and installation through a network connection. This allows the user to adapt the operating system to his/her specific needs. Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of the installed Linux kernel, general system security, and more generally integration of the different software packages into a coherent whole. Distributions typically use a package manager such as dpkg, Synaptic, YAST, or Portageto install, remove and update all of a system's software from one central location.

Community

See also: Free software community and Linux User Group

A distribution is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis, Debian being a well-known example. Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, as Red Hat does withFedora and Novell does with openSUSE.

In many cities and regions, local associations known as Linux User Groups (LUGs) seek to promote their preferred distribution and by extension free software. They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users. Many Internet communities also provide support to Linux users and developers. Most distributions and free software / open source projects have IRC chatrooms or newsgroups. Online forums are another means for support, with notable examples beingLinuxQuestions.org and the various distribution specific support and community forums, such as ones for Ubuntu, Fedora, and Gentoo. Linux distributions host mailing lists; commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or development for a given list.

There are several technology websites with a Linux focus. Print magazines on Linux often include cover disks including software or even complete Linux distributions.^[59][60]

Although Linux distributions are generally available without charge, several large corporations sell, support, and contribute to the development of the components of the system and of free software. An analysis of the Linux kernel showed 75 percent of the code from December 2008 to January 2010 was developed by programmers working for corporations, leaving about 18 percent to the traditional, open source community.^[61] Some of the major corporations that contribute include Dell, IBM, HP, Oracle, Sun Microsystems (now part of Oracle),Novell, and Nokia. A number of corporations, notably Red Hat and Novell, have built a significant business around Linux distributions.

The free software licenses, on which the various software packages of a distribution built on the Linux kernel are based, explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between a Linux distribution as a whole and individual vendors may be seen as symbiotic. One common business model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks.

Another business model is to give away the software in order to sell hardware. This used to be the norm in the computer industry, with operating systems such as CP/M, Apple DOS and versions of Mac OS prior to 7.5 freely copyable (but not modifiable). As computer hardware standardized throughout the 1980s, it became more difficult for hardware manufacturers to profit from this tactic, as the OS would run on any manufacturer's computer that shared the same architecture.

Programming on Linux

Most Linux distributions support dozens of programming languages. The original development tools used for building both Linux applications and operating system programs are found within the GNU toolchain, which includes the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and the GNU build system. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for Ada, C, C++, Java, and Fortran. First released in 2003, the Low Level Virtual Machineproject provides an alternate open-source compiler for many languages. Proprietary compilers for Linux include the Intel C++ Compiler, Sun Studio, and IBM XL C/C++ Compiler. BASIC in the form of Visual Basic is supported in such forms as Gambas, FreeBASIC, and XBasic.

Most distributions also include support for PHP, Perl, Ruby, Python and other dynamic languages. While not as common, Linux also supports C# (via Mono), Vala, and Scheme. A number of Java Virtual Machines and development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), and IBM's J2SE RE, as well as many open-source projects like Kaffe and JikesRVM.

GNOME and KDE are popular desktop environments and provide a framework for developing applications. These projects are based on theGTK+ and Qt widget toolkits, respectively, which can also be used independently of the larger framework. Both support a wide variety of languages. There are a number of Integrated development environments available including Anjuta, Code::Blocks, CodeLite, Eclipse, Geany,ActiveState Komodo, KDevelop, Lazarus, MonoDevelop, NetBeans, Qt Creator and Omnis Studio, while the long-established editors Vimand Emacs remain popular.^[62]

Uses

As well as those designed for general purpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for different purposes including: computer architecture support, embedded systems, stability, security, localization to a specific region or language, targeting of specific user groups, support for real-time applications, or commitment to a given desktop environment. Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only free software. Currently, over three hundred distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general-purpose use.^[63]

Linux is a widely ported operating system kernel. The Linux kernel runs on a highly diverse range of computer architectures: in the hand-heldARM-based iPAQ and the mainframe IBM System z9, System z10; in devices ranging from mobile phones to supercomputers.^[64]Specialized distributions exist for less mainstream architectures. The ELKS kernel fork can run on Intel 8086 or Intel 80286 16-bitmicroprocessors, while the µClinux kernel fork may run on systems without a memory management unit. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such as Macintosh computers (with bothPowerPC and Intel processors), PDAs, video game consoles, portable music players, and mobile phones.

There are several industry associations and hardware conferences devoted to maintaining and improving support for diverse hardware under Linux, such as FreedomHEC.

Desktop

Main article: Desktop Linux

The popularity of Linux on standard desktop computers and laptops has been increasing over the years.^[65] Currently most distributions include a graphical user environment, with the two most popular environments being GNOME (which can utilize additional shells such as the default GNOME Shell and Ubuntu Unity), and the KDE Plasma Desktop.

The performance of Linux on the desktop has been a controversial topic; for example in 2007 Con Kolivas accused the Linux community of favoring performance on servers. He quit Linux kernel development because he was frustrated with this lack of focus on the desktop, and then gave a "tell all" interview on the topic.^[66] Since then a significant amount of development has been undertaken in an effort to improve the desktop experience. Projects such as Upstart and systemd aim for a faster boot time.

Many popular applications are available for a wide variety of operating systems. For example Mozilla Firefox, OpenOffice.org/LibreOffice andBlender have downloadable versions for all major operating systems. Furthermore, some applications were initially developed for Linux, such as Pidgin, and GIMP, and were ported to other operating systems including Windows and Mac OS X due to their popularity. In addition, a growing number of proprietary desktop applications are also supported on Linux;^[67] see List of proprietary software for Linux. In the field of animation and visual effects, most high end software, such as Autodesk Maya, Softimage XSI and Apple Shake, is available for Linux, Windows and/or Mac OS X. There are also several companies that have ported their own or other companies' games to Linux.

Many types of applications available for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X are also available for Linux. Commonly, either a free softwareapplication will exist which does the functions of an application found on another operating system, or that application will have a version that works on Linux, such as with Skype and some video games.^{[citation needed]} Furthermore, the Wine project provides a Windows compatibility layer to run unmodified Windows applications on Linux. CrossOver is a proprietary solution based on the open source Wine project that supports running Windows versions of Microsoft Office, Intuit applications such as Quicken and QuickBooks, Adobe Photoshop versions through CS2, and many popular games such as World of Warcraft and Team Fortress 2. In other cases, where there is no Linux port of some software in areas such as desktop publishing^[68] and professional audio,^[69][70][71] there is equivalent software available on Linux.

The collaborative nature of free software development allows distributed teams to perform language localization of some Linux distributions for use in locales where localizing proprietary systems would not be cost-effective. For example the Sinhalese language version of theKnoppix distribution was available significantly before Microsoft Windows XP was translated to Sinhalese.^{[citation needed]} In this case theLanka Linux User Group played a major part in developing the localized system by combining the knowledge of university professors,linguists, and local developers.

Installing, updating and removing software in Linux is typically done through the use of package managers such as the Synaptic Package Manager, PackageKit, and Yum Extender. While most major Linux distributions have extensive repositories, often containing tens of thousands of packages, not all the software that can run on Linux is available from the official repositories. Alternatively, users can install packages from unofficial repositories, download pre-compiled packages directly from websites, or compile the source code by themselves. All these methods come with different degrees of difficulty; compiling the source code is in general considered a challenging process for new Linux users, but it's hardly needed in modern distributions and is not a method specific to Linux.

• 

  GNOME Shell
 
• 

  KDE Plasma Desktop
 
• 

  Unity
 
• 

  Xfce
 
• 

  LXDE

Servers, mainframes and supercomputers

The Oak Ridge National Laboratory'sJaguar supercomputer, until recently the world's fastest supercomputer. It uses the Cray Linux Environment as its operating system.^[72][73]

Servers designed for Linux

Linux distributions have long been used as server operating systems, and have risen to prominence in that area; Netcraftreported in September 2006 that eight of the ten most reliable internet hosting companies ran Linux distributions on their web servers.^[74] Since June 2008, Linux distributions represented five of the top ten, FreeBSD three of ten, and Microsoft two of ten;^[75]since February 2010, Linux distributions represented six of the top ten, FreeBSD two of ten, and Microsoft one of ten.^[76]

Linux distributions are the cornerstone of the LAMP server-software combination (Linux, Apache, MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python) which has achieved popularity among developers, and which is one of the more common platforms for website hosting.^[77]

Linux distributions have become increasingly popular onmainframes in the last decade partly due to pricing and the open-source model.^{[17][citation needed]} In December 2009, computer giant IBM reported that it would predominantly market and sell mainframe-based Enterprise Linux Server.^[78]

Linux distributions are also commonly used as operating systems for supercomputers: since November 2010, out of the top 500 systems, 459 (91.8%) run a Linux distribution.^[79] Linux was also selected as the operating system for the world's most powerful supercomputer, IBM'sSequoia which will become operational in 2011.^[80]

Embedded devices

See also: Embedded Linux and Linux devices

Home screen displayed onAndroid 2.3 "Gingerbread"

Due to its low cost and ease of customization, Linux is often used in embedded systems. Android—based on a modified version of the Linux kernel—has become a major competitor of Nokia's older Symbian OS, found in many smartphones. During the third quarter of 2010, 25.5% of smartphones sold worldwide used Android (with all Linux variants forming 27.6% of the total during that time).^[81] Cell phones and PDAs running Linux on open-source platforms became more common from 2007; examples include the Nokia N810, Openmoko'sNeo1973, and the Motorola ROKR E8. Continuing the trend, Palm (later acquired by HP) produced a new Linux-derived operating system, webOS, which is built into its new line of Palm Pre smartphones. The popularTiVo digital video recorder also uses a customized Linux,^[82] as do several network firewalls and routers from such makers as Cisco/Linksys. The Korg OASYS, the Korg KRONOS, the Yamaha Yamaha Motif XS/Motif XF music workstations,^[83] Yamaha S90XS/S70XS, Yamaha MOX6/MOX8 synthesizers, Yamaha Motif-Rack XS tone generator module, and Roland RD-700GX digital piano also run Linux. Linux is also used in stage lighting control systems, such as the WholeHogIII console.^[84]

Market share and uptake

Main article: Linux adoption

Usage share of web client operating systems. (Source: Median values fromUsage share of operating systems for August 2011.)

  Windows XP (35.21%)

  Windows 7 (31.21%)

  Windows Vista (11.27%)

  Mac OS X (7.31%)

  iOS (3.38%)

  Android (1.30%)

  Linux (1.11%)

See also: Usage share of operating systems

Many quantitative studies of free / open source software focus on topics including market share and reliability, with numerous studies specifically examining Linux.^[85] The Linux market is growing rapidly, and the revenue of servers, desktops, and packaged software running Linux was expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008.^[86]

IDC's Q1 2007 report indicated that Linux held 12.7% of the overall server market at that time.^[87]This estimate was based on the number of Linux servers sold by various companies, and did not include server hardware purchased separately which had Linux installed on it later. In September 2008 Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer admitted that 60% of web-servers run Linux versus 40% that run Windows Server.^[88]

Primarily based on web server statistics, various companies estimated that the desktop market share of Linux range from less than 1% to 4.8%.^[89] In comparison, Microsoft operating systemshold more than 85%.^{[32][33][34][35][36][37][38][90][91]}

Analysts and proponents attribute the relative success of Linux to its security, reliability, low cost, and freedom from vendor lock-in.^[92][93]

The Wine compatibility layer allows users to run many programs designed for Windows under Linux.^[94] About half of Wine's code has been contributed by volunteers and half sponsored by commercial interests including CodeWeavers, which produces a commercial version of the software. Since 2009, Google has also provided funding to the Wine project.^[95][96]

The XO laptop project of One Laptop Per Child is creating a new and potentially much larger Linux community which is planned to reach millions of schoolchildren and their families in the developing world.^[97] Major supporters of the project include Google, Red Hat, and eBay.^[98] Although the XO will have a Windows option, it will be primarily deployed with Fedora Linux while using Sugar as the desktop environment.

For years Linux has been the platform of choice in the film industry. The first major film produced on Linux servers was 1997'sTitanic.^[99][100] Since then major studios including Dreamworks Animation, Pixar, Weta Digital, and Industrial Light & Magic have migrated to Linux.^{[101][102][103]} According to the Linux Movies Group, more than 95% of the servers and desktops at large animation and visual effects companies use Linux.^[104]

Copyright, trademark, and naming

See also: SCO-Linux controversies

Linux and most GNU software are licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL). The GPL requires that anyone who distributes Linux must make the source code (and any modifications) available to the recipient under the same terms. Other key components of a software system may use other licenses; many libraries use the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the X.org implementation of the X Window System uses the MIT License.

Torvalds states that the Linux kernel will not move from version 2 of the GPL to version 3. He specifically dislikes some provisions in the new license which prohibit the use of the software in digital rights management,^[105][106] and it would also be impractical to obtain permission from all the copyright holders, who number in the thousands.^[107]

A 2001 study of Red Hat Linux 7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 million source lines of code.^[108] Using the Constructive Cost Model, the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand man-years of development time. According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional proprietary means, it would have cost about $1.38 billion (2011 US dollars) to develop in the United States.^[108]

Most of the code (71%) was written in the C programming language, but many other languages were used, including C++, Lisp, assembly language, Perl, Python, Fortran, and various shell scripting languages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.^[108]

In a later study, the same analysis was performed for Debian GNU/Linux version 4.0 (etch, which was released in 2007).^[109] This distribution contained close to 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have required about seventy three thousand man-years and cost US$7.6 billion (in 2011 dollars) to develop by conventional means.

In the United States, the name Linux is a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds.^[4] Initially, nobody registered it, but on 15 August 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademark Linux, and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and in 1997 the case was settled.^[110] The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by the Linux Mark Institute. Torvalds has stated that he trademarked the name only to prevent someone else from using it. LMI originally charged a nominal sublicensing fee for use of the Linux name as part of trademarks,^[111] but later changed this in favor of offering a free, perpetual worldwide sublicense.^[112]

GNU/Linux

Main article: GNU/Linux naming controversy

The Free Software Foundation views Linux distributions that use GNU software as GNU variants and they ask that such operating systems be referred to as GNU/Linux or a Linux-based GNU system.^[113] The media and common usage, however, refers to this family of operating systems simply as Linux, as do many large Linux distributions (e.g. SUSE Linux and Mandriva Linux). Some distributions, notably Debian, use GNU/Linux. The naming issue remains controversial.